Generosity, particularly in the form of almsgiving, has traditionally been viewed as a virtue and a necessary spiritual discipline in the life of the believer. As German Reformed theologian Konrad Pellikan (1478-1556) argues in this excerpt from his commentary on the entire Bible, this practice is particularly for those who have means to care for…

The relationship between grace and works was a particular flash point in the theological debates of the Reformation, and while Protestants have broadly adopted the reformers’ understanding of grace, the legacy of their thought on good works has been more ambiguous. In his commentary on Romans 6:3, however, Lutheran theologian and pastor Johannes Brenz sets…

The regular meeting of the saints for prayer and worship and life shared together in fellowship and concern for one another has traditionally been seen as a foundational spiritual discipline for the church. As Dutch Catholic humanist Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) argues, this pattern was demonstrated in the New Testament, as seen in Acts 2:42-47, where…

Throughout the history of the church, fasting has been seen as a foundational spiritual discipline, but its proper occasion, practice, and meaning have been open to various interpretations. In looking to David in Psalm 35, John Calvin (1509-1564) elaborates from this example a meaning and application of the practice for the church. He argues that…

While most reformers rejected the Roman sacrament of penance, they nevertheless believed confession was still essential the life of the believer. Recognizing its pastoral necessity, they sought in numerous ways to retain the symbolic heart of the practice, taking steps such as making private confession voluntary and emphasizing the use of communal confessions within their…

Throughout the history of the church, prayer has been seen as an indispensable spiritual discipline, and this remained true during the era of the Reformation. In this encouragement to prayer, Lutheran pastor Johann Spangenberg (1484-1550) calls on his audience to reach out to the Lord, knowing with confidence that he is listening and ready to…

While some have argued recently that the Reformation was a significant cause in the secularization of western society, particularly insofar as it lead to the increasing privatization and individualization of religion, this potential consequence was neither intended nor imagined by the reformers. Even the most radical reformers, such as Austrian Anabaptist Leupold Scharnschlager (d.1563) argued…

The value and authority of human reason was a point of significant tension between Protestants and Catholics during the sixteenth century, and Protestants were particularly skeptical of its power to illuminate spiritual truths. As Johannes Bugenhagen (1485-1558) shows, however, Protestants did not dismiss the value of reason altogether. Instead, it was viewed as useful and…

In considering Pauline anthropology, one passage that brought out a range of interpretations was 1 Corinthians 11:7-10, as sixteenth-century exegetes sought to understand Paul’s statement that man is the image and glory of God, but woman the glory of man. Some argue that men and women share the image equally, others that women do not…

In his exegesis of Romans 7:17, Italian reformer Peter Martyr Vermigli (1499-1562) argues that with regard to sin, Aristotelian anthropology conflicts with the understanding of humanity found in Paul’s writings. Whereas Aristotle taught that the most important parts of the human mind innately tend to the good, Vermigli finds that Paul teaches that sin affects…

The nature of the created will was a constant point of conflict during the sixteenth century, both between the reformers and their Catholic opponents. Martin Luther’s (1483-1546) conflict with Erasmus over the bondage of the will was one of the defining debates of the early Reformation. As can be seen in his exegesis of Galatians,…

In working through the Pauline corpus, the reformers constantly wrestled with Paul’s emphasis on the nature of the fallen body, its need for redemption, and the implications of this for those living between Christ’s first and second comings. Catholic pastor Johann Wild (1495-1554) finds much to discuss as Paul speaks of offering the body as…