Two Types of Laws

In his commentary on Romans 13, John Hooper (1495–1555), an Anglican bishop who was martyred under Mary I, unpacks a conundrum for Christians committed to “two kingdoms” doctrine. Both civil and spiritual authorities are appointed by God and so must be obeyed, but what is one to do when secular authorities depart from God’s Word?…
Worldly Rulers Cannot Be Christians

Unlike the magisterial reformers, their radical counterparts were more suspicious of the role of secular government, and their approaches to worldly authority appear on a spectrum from theocracy to entire separation. Many Anabaptists ultimately rejected politics and argued that church and state must be entirely distinct. One who disallowed any place for Christians in secular…
Magistrates Are Servants to All

The reformer of Geneva, John Calvin (1509-1564) affirmed a greater distinction between the roles of the church and the state in his formulation of the two kingdoms than many of his contemporaries, which perhaps reflects the contentious relationship he often had with the Genevan civil authorities. Nevertheless, he still sees these civil and spiritual governments…
Compelled to Listen, Not Believe

In formulating their doctrine of two kingdoms for the governance of the world, the magisterial reformers envisioned a close, reciprocal relationship between these two institutions. In this excerpt from Urbanus Rhegius (1489-1541) in response to Anabaptism, the Lutheran theologian argues that in their role of administering the temporal world, leaders are nevertheless to seek the…
Our Prelates Have Reversed the Apostolic Command

While the Protestant Reformers regularly criticized the Roman Catholic church for its indulgence in worldly affairs, these criticisms were not only external. This can be seen in the following excerpt from Johann Eck (1487–1543), an early opponent of Martin Luther. Here, the Catholic theologian articulates similar criticisms, arguing that many leaders of the church have…
God Ordains Both Secular and Ecclesial Offices

Building on Augustine’s thought in The City of God, the political theology of most of the magisterial Reformers was some form of the “two kingdoms” doctrine as this excerpt from Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560) shows. Here, he teaches that God ordained two distinct governments in the world—the temporal and the spiritual—and that both were essential and…
Our Life Is a Prayer Before God

In this excerpt from his catechism for children, Catholic theologian Juan de Valdés (1509-1541) takes an expansive view of the spiritual disciplines. The whole of the Christian life, he argues, should be characterized by prayer and fellowship, in all things seeking reconciliation with the Lord by fasting from the lusts of the flesh and feasting…
For as Often as You Eat This Bread

While the Reformers dismissed much of the Roman sacramental system as unbiblical, it was generally agreed that two sacraments remained essential for the Christian life: Baptism and the Lord’s Supper. While baptism should only be undertaken once, most Reformers, such as Lutheran Tilemann Hesshus (1527-1588) argued that communion should be taken often and that the…
The Sweet Honey of the Word of God

The era of the Reformation is often seen as a watershed in the practice of personal Bible reading, as the invention of the printing press and new vernacular translations made the Scriptures more available and affordable to a wider audience. While the Reformers advocated for their adherents to read the Scriptures regularly for themselves, these…
The Blessing of Giving

Generosity, particularly in the form of almsgiving, has traditionally been viewed as a virtue and a necessary spiritual discipline in the life of the believer. As German Reformed theologian Konrad Pellikan (1478-1556) argues in this excerpt from his commentary on the entire Bible, this practice is particularly for those who have means to care for…
Good Works Are Our Duty, Not Our Merit

The relationship between grace and works was a particular flash point in the theological debates of the Reformation, and while Protestants have broadly adopted the reformers’ understanding of grace, the legacy of their thought on good works has been more ambiguous. In his commentary on Romans 6:3, however, Lutheran theologian and pastor Johannes Brenz sets…
The Spirit Produced a Supernatural Unity

The regular meeting of the saints for prayer and worship and life shared together in fellowship and concern for one another has traditionally been seen as a foundational spiritual discipline for the church. As Dutch Catholic humanist Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) argues, this pattern was demonstrated in the New Testament, as seen in Acts 2:42-47, where…