In his commentary on Romans 13, John Hooper (1495–1555), an Anglican bishop who was martyred under Mary I, unpacks a conundrum for Christians committed to “two kingdoms” doctrine. Both civil and spiritual authorities are appointed by God and so must be obeyed, but what is one to do when secular authorities depart from God’s Word?…

Unlike the magisterial reformers, their radical counterparts were more suspicious of the role of secular government, and their approaches to worldly authority appear on a spectrum from theocracy to entire separation. Many Anabaptists ultimately rejected politics and argued that church and state must be entirely distinct. One who disallowed any place for Christians in secular…

In formulating their doctrine of two kingdoms for the governance of the world, the magisterial reformers envisioned a close, reciprocal relationship between these two institutions. In this excerpt from Urbanus Rhegius (1489-1541) in response to Anabaptism, the Lutheran theologian argues that in their role of administering the temporal world, leaders are nevertheless to seek the…

Building on Augustine’s thought in The City of God, the political theology of most of the magisterial Reformers was some form of the “two kingdoms” doctrine as this excerpt from Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560) shows. Here, he teaches that God ordained two distinct governments in the world—the temporal and the spiritual—and that both were essential and…

In his Miracles: God’s Presence and Power in Creation, Luke Timothy Johnson argues that at the heart of the Christian faith is the claim that God has revealed himself and acted to accomplish his purposes through signs, wonders, and miracles. The mighty acts of God—from Creation to Exodus to Christ’s resurrection to the outpouring of…

While the Reformers dismissed much of the Roman sacramental system as unbiblical, it was generally agreed that two sacraments remained essential for the Christian life: Baptism and the Lord’s Supper. While baptism should only be undertaken once, most Reformers, such as Lutheran Tilemann Hesshus (1527-1588) argued that communion should be taken often and that the…

Generosity, particularly in the form of almsgiving, has traditionally been viewed as a virtue and a necessary spiritual discipline in the life of the believer. As German Reformed theologian Konrad Pellikan (1478-1556) argues in this excerpt from his commentary on the entire Bible, this practice is particularly for those who have means to care for…

The relationship between grace and works was a particular flash point in the theological debates of the Reformation, and while Protestants have broadly adopted the reformers’ understanding of grace, the legacy of their thought on good works has been more ambiguous. In his commentary on Romans 6:3, however, Lutheran theologian and pastor Johannes Brenz sets…

The regular meeting of the saints for prayer and worship and life shared together in fellowship and concern for one another has traditionally been seen as a foundational spiritual discipline for the church. As Dutch Catholic humanist Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) argues, this pattern was demonstrated in the New Testament, as seen in Acts 2:42-47, where…

Throughout the history of the church, fasting has been seen as a foundational spiritual discipline, but its proper occasion, practice, and meaning have been open to various interpretations. In looking to David in Psalm 35, John Calvin (1509-1564) elaborates from this example a meaning and application of the practice for the church. He argues that…

While most reformers rejected the Roman sacrament of penance, they nevertheless believed confession was still essential the life of the believer. Recognizing its pastoral necessity, they sought in numerous ways to retain the symbolic heart of the practice, taking steps such as making private confession voluntary and emphasizing the use of communal confessions within their…

Throughout the history of the church, prayer has been seen as an indispensable spiritual discipline, and this remained true during the era of the Reformation. In this encouragement to prayer, Lutheran pastor Johann Spangenberg (1484-1550) calls on his audience to reach out to the Lord, knowing with confidence that he is listening and ready to…