In his commentary on Romans 13, John Hooper (1495–1555), an Anglican bishop who was martyred under Mary I, unpacks a conundrum for Christians committed to “two kingdoms” doctrine. Both civil and spiritual authorities are appointed by God and so must be obeyed, but what is one to do when secular authorities depart from God’s Word?…

In this excerpt from his catechism for children, Catholic theologian Juan de Valdés (1509-1541) takes an expansive view of the spiritual disciplines. The whole of the Christian life, he argues, should be characterized by prayer and fellowship, in all things seeking reconciliation with the Lord by fasting from the lusts of the flesh and feasting…

The relationship between grace and works was a particular flash point in the theological debates of the Reformation, and while Protestants have broadly adopted the reformers’ understanding of grace, the legacy of their thought on good works has been more ambiguous. In his commentary on Romans 6:3, however, Lutheran theologian and pastor Johannes Brenz sets…

The value and authority of human reason was a point of significant tension between Protestants and Catholics during the sixteenth century, and Protestants were particularly skeptical of its power to illuminate spiritual truths. As Johannes Bugenhagen (1485-1558) shows, however, Protestants did not dismiss the value of reason altogether. Instead, it was viewed as useful and…

In his exegesis of Romans 7:17, Italian reformer Peter Martyr Vermigli (1499-1562) argues that with regard to sin, Aristotelian anthropology conflicts with the understanding of humanity found in Paul’s writings. Whereas Aristotle taught that the most important parts of the human mind innately tend to the good, Vermigli finds that Paul teaches that sin affects…

In working through the Pauline corpus, the reformers constantly wrestled with Paul’s emphasis on the nature of the fallen body, its need for redemption, and the implications of this for those living between Christ’s first and second comings. Catholic pastor Johann Wild (1495-1554) finds much to discuss as Paul speaks of offering the body as…

The opposition between God and humanity’s corruption is a common theme in Paul’s anthropology, and so it is unsurprising that it becomes central to the anthropologies of many of the reformers as well. In his commentary on Romans 8, Lutheran Johannes Brenz (1499-1570) uses the illustration of a wolf among sheep to demonstrate the enmity…

In his interpretation of Romans 1:19, Martin Bucer (1491-1551) argues that Paul’s theological anthropology teaches the notio Dei, the idea that God “possesses power over all things and is the highest good.” Distinct from the knowledge of God, which is made known through Christ, the notio Dei is a natural recognition of God imprinted on…

Few topics have caused as much controversy throughout the history of the church as the relationship between the church and the state, and the era of the Reformation was certainly not immune to these conflicts. The sixteenth century opened as an era when church and civil authorities were closely wedded together, and this brought about…

Throughout the history of the church, the biblical idea of “elders” or “presbyters” has been understood in numerous ways, and it has been used to justify levels of oversight stretching from the communal rule of single congregations to the supervision of a single bishop or archbishop concerned for the spiritual wellbeing of large territories. As…

When we ask what the “groaning of creation” in Romans 8:19-22 means, many today expect an answer addressing environmentalism and creation-care. The desire to relate this passage to such contemporary discussions is certainly a good one. But first we need to place this passage in its original context to be sure of its own meaning….

And we know that all the creation together groans and together suffers birth pangs up to the present moment. –Romans 8:22 The creation is giving birth to us. She is our mother. Paul sets this remarkable image before the eyes of the Roman Christians. Or, better stated, he seeks to open their ears to the…