Few topics have caused as much controversy throughout the history of the church as the relationship between the church and the state, and the era of the Reformation was certainly not immune to these conflicts. The sixteenth century opened as an era when church and civil authorities were closely wedded together, and this brought about…

Throughout the history of the church, the biblical idea of “elders” or “presbyters” has been understood in numerous ways, and it has been used to justify levels of oversight stretching from the communal rule of single congregations to the supervision of a single bishop or archbishop concerned for the spiritual wellbeing of large territories. As…

When we ask what the “groaning of creation” in Romans 8:19-22 means, many today expect an answer addressing environmentalism and creation-care. The desire to relate this passage to such contemporary discussions is certainly a good one. But first we need to place this passage in its original context to be sure of its own meaning….

And we know that all the creation together groans and together suffers birth pangs up to the present moment. –Romans 8:22 The creation is giving birth to us. She is our mother. Paul sets this remarkable image before the eyes of the Roman Christians. Or, better stated, he seeks to open their ears to the…

In Romans 8:19-22, Paul lifts the gaze of his readers from their present circumstances to look around at an entire creation that shares in their suffering and hope and to look forward to the incomparable glory that awaits. Other than John 1:14 (“the Word became flesh”), this text is perhaps the most significant in the…

I grew up in a low socioeconomic area in a densely populated Asian city. The rapid urbanization resulted in high-level air and noise pollution, which had substantial negative impact on people’s physical and mental health. I certainly found life oppressive in that environment. Now, I have made Australia home for many years. I enjoy the…

The world we live in bears the hallmarks of humans who have exploited and plundered God’s creation with devastating results for our world. Deforestation, increasing species extinction, air pollution, the rapid increase in our climate, and lack of clean water mar the goodness and beauty of God’s creation in obvious ways. And ecological degradation almost…

The proper structure of the church was one of the most contested issues of the sixteenth century, and while Protestants agree on the errors of an episcopacy headed by a supreme pontiff, there is still little agreement among them about the right form of church polity. Many of these disagreements emerged early in the Reformation,…

A popular Franciscan preacher at the Mainz Cathedral, Johann Wild (1495-1554) was known for his irenic spirit and ability to accommodate his teaching to the needs of common people. While Paul’s greetings at the end of Romans are often passed over, Wild pauses to find their pastoral significance, and carefully notes the prospective benefits they…

John Calvin’s (1509-1564) enthusiasm for the word of God is clear as his interpretation of this passage meditates on the value of Scripture and its role in the Christian life. He defends the value of both Old and New Testaments for the edification of believers, arguing that as the same Spirit of Christ oversaw the…

Known for his uncompromising views on church discipline and the assertion of obedience as a mark of the church, Lutheran theologian Tilemann Hesshus (1527-1588) was often embroiled in controversies and was asked to leave numerous cities during the course of his pastoral career. In his interpretation of Romans 14:23, he follows Augustine and many of…

In his interpretation of Romans 14, German Reformed theologian Wolfgang Musculus (1497-1563), like many of his contemporaries, frames his discussion around the distinction between primary, indisputable matters of faith, and those things that are adiaphora, or indifferent to faith. Christian freedom, he argues, should not result in controversy and division on account of these secondary…